# dialects/oracle/base.py
# Copyright (C) 2005-2025 the SQLAlchemy authors and contributors
# <see AUTHORS file>
#
# This module is part of SQLAlchemy and is released under
# the MIT License: https://www.opensource.org/licenses/mit-license.php
# mypy: ignore-errors


r"""
.. dialect:: oracle
    :name: Oracle Database
    :normal_support: 11+
    :best_effort: 9+


Auto Increment Behavior
-----------------------

SQLAlchemy Table objects which include integer primary keys are usually assumed
to have "autoincrementing" behavior, meaning they can generate their own
primary key values upon INSERT. For use within Oracle Database, two options are
available, which are the use of IDENTITY columns (Oracle Database 12 and above
only) or the association of a SEQUENCE with the column.

Specifying GENERATED AS IDENTITY (Oracle Database 12 and above)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Starting from version 12, Oracle Database can make use of identity columns
using the :class:`_sql.Identity` to specify the autoincrementing behavior::

    t = Table(
        "mytable",
        metadata,
        Column("id", Integer, Identity(start=3), primary_key=True),
        Column(...),
        ...,
    )

The CREATE TABLE for the above :class:`_schema.Table` object would be:

.. sourcecode:: sql

    CREATE TABLE mytable (
        id INTEGER GENERATED BY DEFAULT AS IDENTITY (START WITH 3),
        ...,
        PRIMARY KEY (id)
    )

The :class:`_schema.Identity` object support many options to control the
"autoincrementing" behavior of the column, like the starting value, the
incrementing value, etc.  In addition to the standard options, Oracle Database
supports setting :paramref:`_schema.Identity.always` to ``None`` to use the
default generated mode, rendering GENERATED AS IDENTITY in the DDL. It also supports
setting :paramref:`_schema.Identity.on_null` to ``True`` to specify ON NULL
in conjunction with a 'BY DEFAULT' identity column.

Using a SEQUENCE (all Oracle Database versions)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Older version of Oracle Database had no "autoincrement" feature: SQLAlchemy
relies upon sequences to produce these values.  With the older Oracle Database
versions, *a sequence must always be explicitly specified to enable
autoincrement*.  This is divergent with the majority of documentation examples
which assume the usage of an autoincrement-capable database.  To specify
sequences, use the sqlalchemy.schema.Sequence object which is passed to a
Column construct::

  t = Table(
      "mytable",
      metadata,
      Column("id", Integer, Sequence("id_seq", start=1), primary_key=True),
      Column(...),
      ...,
  )

This step is also required when using table reflection, i.e. autoload_with=engine::

  t = Table(
      "mytable",
      metadata,
      Column("id", Integer, Sequence("id_seq", start=1), primary_key=True),
      autoload_with=engine,
  )

.. versionchanged::  1.4   Added :class:`_schema.Identity` construct
   in a :class:`_schema.Column` to specify the option of an autoincrementing
   column.

.. _oracle_isolation_level:

Transaction Isolation Level / Autocommit
----------------------------------------

Oracle Database supports "READ COMMITTED" and "SERIALIZABLE" modes of
isolation. The AUTOCOMMIT isolation level is also supported by the
python-oracledb and cx_Oracle dialects.

To set using per-connection execution options::

    connection = engine.connect()
    connection = connection.execution_options(isolation_level="AUTOCOMMIT")

For ``READ COMMITTED`` and ``SERIALIZABLE``, the Oracle Database dialects sets
the level at the session level using ``ALTER SESSION``, which is reverted back
to its default setting when the connection is returned to the connection pool.

Valid values for ``isolation_level`` include:

* ``READ COMMITTED``
* ``AUTOCOMMIT``
* ``SERIALIZABLE``

.. note:: The implementation for the
   :meth:`_engine.Connection.get_isolation_level` method as implemented by the
   Oracle Database dialects necessarily force the start of a transaction using the
   Oracle Database DBMS_TRANSACTION.LOCAL_TRANSACTION_ID function; otherwise no
   level is normally readable.

   Additionally, the :meth:`_engine.Connection.get_isolation_level` method will
   raise an exception if the ``v$transaction`` view is not available due to
   permissions or other reasons, which is a common occurrence in Oracle Database
   installations.

   The python-oracledb and cx_Oracle dialects attempt to call the
   :meth:`_engine.Connection.get_isolation_level` method when the dialect makes
   its first connection to the database in order to acquire the
   "default"isolation level.  This default level is necessary so that the level
   can be reset on a connection after it has been temporarily modified using
   :meth:`_engine.Connection.execution_options` method.  In the common event
   that the :meth:`_engine.Connection.get_isolation_level` method raises an
   exception due to ``v$transaction`` not being readable as well as any other
   database-related failure, the level is assumed to be "READ COMMITTED".  No
   warning is emitted for this initial first-connect condition as it is
   expected to be a common restriction on Oracle databases.

.. versionadded:: 1.3.16 added support for AUTOCOMMIT to the cx_Oracle dialect
   as well as the notion of a default isolation level

.. versionadded:: 1.3.21 Added support for SERIALIZABLE as well as live
   reading of the isolation level.

.. versionchanged:: 1.3.22 In the event that the default isolation
   level cannot be read due to permissions on the v$transaction view as
   is common in Oracle installations, the default isolation level is hardcoded
   to "READ COMMITTED" which was the behavior prior to 1.3.21.

.. seealso::

    :ref:`dbapi_autocommit`

Identifier Casing
-----------------

In Oracle Database, the data dictionary represents all case insensitive
identifier names using UPPERCASE text.  This is in contradiction to the
expectations of SQLAlchemy, which assume a case insensitive name is represented
as lowercase text.

As an example of case insensitive identifier names, consider the following table:

.. sourcecode:: sql

    CREATE TABLE MyTable (Identifier INTEGER PRIMARY KEY)

If you were to ask Oracle Database for information about this table, the
table name would be reported as ``MYTABLE`` and the column name would
be reported as ``IDENTIFIER``.    Compare to most other databases such as
PostgreSQL and MySQL which would report these names as ``mytable`` and
``identifier``.   The names are **not quoted, therefore are case insensitive**.
The special casing of ``MyTable`` and ``Identifier`` would only be maintained
if they were quoted in the table definition:

.. sourcecode:: sql

    CREATE TABLE "MyTable" ("Identifier" INTEGER PRIMARY KEY)

When constructing a SQLAlchemy :class:`.Table` object, **an all lowercase name
is considered to be case insensitive**.   So the following table assumes
case insensitive names::

    Table("mytable", metadata, Column("identifier", Integer, primary_key=True))

Whereas when mixed case or UPPERCASE names are used, case sensitivity is
assumed::

    Table("MyTable", metadata, Column("Identifier", Integer, primary_key=True))

A similar situation occurs at the database driver level when emitting a
textual SQL SELECT statement and looking at column names in the DBAPI
``cursor.description`` attribute.  A database like PostgreSQL will normalize
case insensitive names to be lowercase::

    >>> pg_engine = create_engine("postgresql://scott:tiger@localhost/test")
    >>> pg_connection = pg_engine.connect()
    >>> result = pg_connection.exec_driver_sql("SELECT 1 AS SomeName")
    >>> result.cursor.description
    (Column(name='somename', type_code=23),)

Whereas Oracle normalizes them to UPPERCASE::

    >>> oracle_engine = create_engine("oracle+oracledb://scott:tiger@oracle18c/xe")
    >>> oracle_connection = oracle_engine.connect()
    >>> result = oracle_connection.exec_driver_sql(
    ...     "SELECT 1 AS SomeName FROM DUAL"
    ... )
    >>> result.cursor.description
    [('SOMENAME', <DbType DB_TYPE_NUMBER>, 127, None, 0, -127, True)]

In order to achieve cross-database parity for the two cases of a. table
reflection and b. textual-only SQL statement round trips, SQLAlchemy performs a step
called **name normalization** when using the Oracle dialect.  This process may
also apply to other third party dialects that have similar UPPERCASE handling
of case insensitive names.

When using name normalization, SQLAlchemy attempts to detect if a name is
case insensitive by checking if all characters are UPPERCASE letters only;
if so, then it assumes this is a case insensitive name and is delivered as
a lowercase name.

For table reflection, a tablename that is seen represented as all UPPERCASE
in Oracle Database's catalog tables will be assumed to have a case insensitive
name.  This is what allows the ``Table`` definition to use lower case names
and be equally compatible from a reflection point of view on Oracle Database
and all other databases such as PostgreSQL and MySQL::

    # matches a table created with CREATE TABLE mytable
    Table("mytable", metadata, autoload_with=some_engine)

Above, the all lowercase name ``"mytable"`` is case insensitive; it will match
a table reported by PostgreSQL as ``"mytable"`` and a table reported by
Oracle as ``"MYTABLE"``.  If name normalization were not present, it would
not be possible for the above :class:`.Table` definition to be introspectable
in a cross-database way, since we are dealing with a case insensitive name
that is not reported by each database in the same way.

Case sensitivity can be forced on in this case, such as if we wanted to represent
the quoted tablename ``"MYTABLE"`` with that exact casing, most simply by using
that casing directly, which will be seen as a case sensitive name::

    # matches a table created with CREATE TABLE "MYTABLE"
    Table("MYTABLE", metadata, autoload_with=some_engine)

For the unusual case of a quoted all-lowercase name, the :class:`.quoted_name`
construct may be used::

    from sqlalchemy import quoted_name

    # matches a table created with CREATE TABLE "mytable"
    Table(
        quoted_name("mytable", quote=True), metadata, autoload_with=some_engine
    )

Name normalization also takes place when handling result sets from **purely
textual SQL strings**, that have no other :class:`.Table` or :class:`.Column`
metadata associated with them. This includes SQL strings executed using
:meth:`.Connection.exec_driver_sql` and SQL strings executed using the
:func:`.text` construct which do not include :class:`.Column` metadata.

Returning to the Oracle Database SELECT statement, we see that even though
``cursor.description`` reports the column name as ``SOMENAME``, SQLAlchemy
name normalizes this to ``somename``::

    >>> oracle_engine = create_engine("oracle+oracledb://scott:tiger@oracle18c/xe")
    >>> oracle_connection = oracle_engine.connect()
    >>> result = oracle_connection.exec_driver_sql(
    ...     "SELECT 1 AS SomeName FROM DUAL"
    ... )
    >>> result.cursor.description
    [('SOMENAME', <DbType DB_TYPE_NUMBER>, 127, None, 0, -127, True)]
    >>> result.keys()
    RMKeyView(['somename'])

The single scenario where the above behavior produces inaccurate results
is when using an all-uppercase, quoted name.  SQLAlchemy has no way to determine
that a particular name in ``cursor.description`` was quoted, and is therefore
case sensitive, or was not quoted, and should be name normalized::

    >>> result = oracle_connection.exec_driver_sql(
    ...     'SELECT 1 AS "SOMENAME" FROM DUAL'
    ... )
    >>> result.cursor.description
    [('SOMENAME', <DbType DB_TYPE_NUMBER>, 127, None, 0, -127, True)]
    >>> result.keys()
    RMKeyView(['somename'])

For this case, a new feature will be available in SQLAlchemy 2.1 to disable
the name normalization behavior in specific cases.


.. _oracle_max_identifier_lengths:

Maximum Identifier Lengths
--------------------------

SQLAlchemy is sensitive to the maximum identifier length supported by Oracle
Database. This affects generated SQL label names as well as the generation of
constraint names, particularly in the case where the constraint naming
convention feature described at :ref:`constraint_naming_conventions` is being
used.

Oracle Database 12.2 increased the default maximum identifier length from 30 to
128. As of SQLAlchemy 1.4, the default maximum identifier length for the Oracle
dialects is 128 characters.  Upon first connection, the maximum length actually
supported by the database is obtained. In all cases, setting the
:paramref:`_sa.create_engine.max_identifier_length` parameter will bypass this
change and the value given will be used as is::

    engine = create_engine(
        "oracle+oracledb://scott:tiger@localhost:1521?service_name=freepdb1",
        max_identifier_length=30,
    )

If :paramref:`_sa.create_engine.max_identifier_length` is not set, the oracledb
dialect internally uses the ``max_identifier_length`` attribute available on
driver connections since python-oracledb version 2.5. When using an older
driver version, or using the cx_Oracle dialect, SQLAlchemy will instead attempt
to use the query ``SELECT value FROM v$parameter WHERE name = 'compatible'``
upon first connect in order to determine the effective compatibility version of
the database. The "compatibility" version is a version number that is
independent of the actual database version. It is used to assist database
migration. It is configured by an Oracle Database initialization parameter. The
compatibility version then determines the maximum allowed identifier length for
the database. If the V$ view is not available, the database version information
is used instead.

The maximum identifier length comes into play both when generating anonymized
SQL labels in SELECT statements, but more crucially when generating constraint
names from a naming convention.  It is this area that has created the need for
SQLAlchemy to change this default conservatively.  For example, the following
naming convention produces two very different constraint names based on the
identifier length::

    from sqlalchemy import Column
    from sqlalchemy import Index
    from sqlalchemy import Integer
    from sqlalchemy import MetaData
    from sqlalchemy import Table
    from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle
    from sqlalchemy.schema import CreateIndex

    m = MetaData(naming_convention={"ix": "ix_%(column_0N_name)s"})

    t = Table(
        "t",
        m,
        Column("some_column_name_1", Integer),
        Column("some_column_name_2", Integer),
        Column("some_column_name_3", Integer),
    )

    ix = Index(
        None,
        t.c.some_column_name_1,
        t.c.some_column_name_2,
        t.c.some_column_name_3,
    )

    oracle_dialect = oracle.dialect(max_identifier_length=30)
    print(CreateIndex(ix).compile(dialect=oracle_dialect))

With an identifier length of 30, the above CREATE INDEX looks like:

.. sourcecode:: sql

    CREATE INDEX ix_some_column_name_1s_70cd ON t
    (some_column_name_1, some_column_name_2, some_column_name_3)

However with length of 128, it becomes::

.. sourcecode:: sql

    CREATE INDEX ix_some_column_name_1some_column_name_2some_column_name_3 ON t
    (some_column_name_1, some_column_name_2, some_column_name_3)

Applications which have run versions of SQLAlchemy prior to 1.4 on Oracle
Database version 12.2 or greater are therefore subject to the scenario of a
database migration that wishes to "DROP CONSTRAINT" on a name that was
previously generated with the shorter length.  This migration will fail when
the identifier length is changed without the name of the index or constraint
first being adjusted.  Such applications are strongly advised to make use of
:paramref:`_sa.create_engine.max_identifier_length` in order to maintain
control of the generation of truncated names, and to fully review and test all
database migrations in a staging environment when changing this value to ensure
that the impact of this change has been mitigated.

.. versionchanged:: 1.4 the default max_identifier_length for Oracle Database
   is 128 characters, which is adjusted down to 30 upon first connect if the
   Oracle Database, or its compatibility setting, are lower than version 12.2.


LIMIT/OFFSET/FETCH Support
--------------------------

Methods like :meth:`_sql.Select.limit` and :meth:`_sql.Select.offset` make use
of ``FETCH FIRST N ROW / OFFSET N ROWS`` syntax assuming Oracle Database 12c or
above, and assuming the SELECT statement is not embedded within a compound
statement like UNION.  This syntax is also available directly by using the
:meth:`_sql.Select.fetch` method.

.. versionchanged:: 2.0 the Oracle Database dialects now use ``FETCH FIRST N
   ROW / OFFSET N ROWS`` for all :meth:`_sql.Select.limit` and
   :meth:`_sql.Select.offset` usage including within the ORM and legacy
   :class:`_orm.Query`.  To force the legacy behavior using window functions,
   specify the ``enable_offset_fetch=False`` dialect parameter to
   :func:`_sa.create_engine`.

The use of ``FETCH FIRST / OFFSET`` may be disabled on any Oracle Database
version by passing ``enable_offset_fetch=False`` to :func:`_sa.create_engine`,
which will force the use of "legacy" mode that makes use of window functions.
This mode is also selected automatically when using a version of Oracle
Database prior to 12c.

When using legacy mode, or when a :class:`.Select` statement with limit/offset
is embedded in a compound statement, an emulated approach for LIMIT / OFFSET
based on window functions is used, which involves creation of a subquery using
``ROW_NUMBER`` that is prone to performance issues as well as SQL construction
issues for complex statements. However, this approach is supported by all
Oracle Database versions. See notes below.

Notes on LIMIT / OFFSET emulation (when fetch() method cannot be used)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

If using :meth:`_sql.Select.limit` and :meth:`_sql.Select.offset`, or with the
ORM the :meth:`_orm.Query.limit` and :meth:`_orm.Query.offset` methods on an
Oracle Database version prior to 12c, the following notes apply:

* SQLAlchemy currently makes use of ROWNUM to achieve
  LIMIT/OFFSET; the exact methodology is taken from
  https://blogs.oracle.com/oraclemagazine/on-rownum-and-limiting-results .

* the "FIRST_ROWS()" optimization keyword is not used by default.  To enable
  the usage of this optimization directive, specify ``optimize_limits=True``
  to :func:`_sa.create_engine`.

  .. versionchanged:: 1.4

      The Oracle Database dialect renders limit/offset integer values using a
      "post compile" scheme which renders the integer directly before passing
      the statement to the cursor for execution.  The ``use_binds_for_limits``
      flag no longer has an effect.

      .. seealso::

          :ref:`change_4808`.

.. _oracle_returning:

RETURNING Support
-----------------

Oracle Database supports RETURNING fully for INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE
statements that are invoked with a single collection of bound parameters (that
is, a ``cursor.execute()`` style statement; SQLAlchemy does not generally
support RETURNING with :term:`executemany` statements).  Multiple rows may be
returned as well.

.. versionchanged:: 2.0 the Oracle Database backend has full support for
   RETURNING on parity with other backends.


ON UPDATE CASCADE
-----------------

Oracle Database doesn't have native ON UPDATE CASCADE functionality.  A trigger
based solution is available at
https://web.archive.org/web/20090317041251/https://asktom.oracle.com/tkyte/update_cascade/index.html

When using the SQLAlchemy ORM, the ORM has limited ability to manually issue
cascading updates - specify ForeignKey objects using the
"deferrable=True, initially='deferred'" keyword arguments,
and specify "passive_updates=False" on each relationship().

Oracle Database 8 Compatibility
-------------------------------

.. warning:: The status of Oracle Database 8 compatibility is not known for
   SQLAlchemy 2.0.

When Oracle Database 8 is detected, the dialect internally configures itself to
the following behaviors:

* the use_ansi flag is set to False.  This has the effect of converting all
  JOIN phrases into the WHERE clause, and in the case of LEFT OUTER JOIN
  makes use of Oracle's (+) operator.

* the NVARCHAR2 and NCLOB datatypes are no longer generated as DDL when
  the :class:`~sqlalchemy.types.Unicode` is used - VARCHAR2 and CLOB are issued
  instead. This because these types don't seem to work correctly on Oracle 8
  even though they are available. The :class:`~sqlalchemy.types.NVARCHAR` and
  :class:`~sqlalchemy.dialects.oracle.NCLOB` types will always generate
  NVARCHAR2 and NCLOB.


Synonym/DBLINK Reflection
-------------------------

When using reflection with Table objects, the dialect can optionally search
for tables indicated by synonyms, either in local or remote schemas or
accessed over DBLINK, by passing the flag ``oracle_resolve_synonyms=True`` as
a keyword argument to the :class:`_schema.Table` construct::

    some_table = Table(
        "some_table", autoload_with=some_engine, oracle_resolve_synonyms=True
    )

When this flag is set, the given name (such as ``some_table`` above) will be
searched not just in the ``ALL_TABLES`` view, but also within the
``ALL_SYNONYMS`` view to see if this name is actually a synonym to another
name.  If the synonym is located and refers to a DBLINK, the Oracle Database
dialects know how to locate the table's information using DBLINK syntax(e.g.
``@dblink``).

``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` is accepted wherever reflection arguments are
accepted, including methods such as :meth:`_schema.MetaData.reflect` and
:meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_columns`.

If synonyms are not in use, this flag should be left disabled.

.. _oracle_constraint_reflection:

Constraint Reflection
---------------------

The Oracle Database dialects can return information about foreign key, unique,
and CHECK constraints, as well as indexes on tables.

Raw information regarding these constraints can be acquired using
:meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_foreign_keys`,
:meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_unique_constraints`,
:meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_check_constraints`, and
:meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_indexes`.

.. versionchanged:: 1.2 The Oracle Database dialect can now reflect UNIQUE and
   CHECK constraints.

When using reflection at the :class:`_schema.Table` level, the
:class:`_schema.Table`
will also include these constraints.

Note the following caveats:

* When using the :meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_check_constraints` method,
  Oracle Database builds a special "IS NOT NULL" constraint for columns that
  specify "NOT NULL".  This constraint is **not** returned by default; to
  include the "IS NOT NULL" constraints, pass the flag ``include_all=True``::

      from sqlalchemy import create_engine, inspect

      engine = create_engine(
          "oracle+oracledb://scott:tiger@localhost:1521?service_name=freepdb1"
      )
      inspector = inspect(engine)
      all_check_constraints = inspector.get_check_constraints(
          "some_table", include_all=True
      )

* in most cases, when reflecting a :class:`_schema.Table`, a UNIQUE constraint
  will **not** be available as a :class:`.UniqueConstraint` object, as Oracle
  Database mirrors unique constraints with a UNIQUE index in most cases (the
  exception seems to be when two or more unique constraints represent the same
  columns); the :class:`_schema.Table` will instead represent these using
  :class:`.Index` with the ``unique=True`` flag set.

* Oracle Database creates an implicit index for the primary key of a table;
  this index is **excluded** from all index results.

* the list of columns reflected for an index will not include column names
  that start with SYS_NC.

Table names with SYSTEM/SYSAUX tablespaces
-------------------------------------------

The :meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_table_names` and
:meth:`_reflection.Inspector.get_temp_table_names`
methods each return a list of table names for the current engine. These methods
are also part of the reflection which occurs within an operation such as
:meth:`_schema.MetaData.reflect`.  By default,
these operations exclude the ``SYSTEM``
and ``SYSAUX`` tablespaces from the operation.   In order to change this, the
default list of tablespaces excluded can be changed at the engine level using
the ``exclude_tablespaces`` parameter::

    # exclude SYSAUX and SOME_TABLESPACE, but not SYSTEM
    e = create_engine(
        "oracle+oracledb://scott:tiger@localhost:1521/?service_name=freepdb1",
        exclude_tablespaces=["SYSAUX", "SOME_TABLESPACE"],
    )

.. _oracle_float_support:

FLOAT / DOUBLE Support and Behaviors
------------------------------------

The SQLAlchemy :class:`.Float` and :class:`.Double` datatypes are generic
datatypes that resolve to the "least surprising" datatype for a given backend.
For Oracle Database, this means they resolve to the ``FLOAT`` and ``DOUBLE``
types::

    >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, literal, Float
    >>> from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle
    >>> float_datatype = Float()
    >>> print(cast(literal(5.0), float_datatype).compile(dialect=oracle.dialect()))
    CAST(:param_1 AS FLOAT)

Oracle's ``FLOAT`` / ``DOUBLE`` datatypes are aliases for ``NUMBER``.   Oracle
Database stores ``NUMBER`` values with full precision, not floating point
precision, which means that ``FLOAT`` / ``DOUBLE`` do not actually behave like
native FP values. Oracle Database instead offers special datatypes
``BINARY_FLOAT`` and ``BINARY_DOUBLE`` to deliver real 4- and 8- byte FP
values.

SQLAlchemy supports these datatypes directly using :class:`.BINARY_FLOAT` and
:class:`.BINARY_DOUBLE`.   To use the :class:`.Float` or :class:`.Double`
datatypes in a database agnostic way, while allowing Oracle backends to utilize
one of these types, use the :meth:`.TypeEngine.with_variant` method to set up a
variant::

    >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, literal, Float
    >>> from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle
    >>> float_datatype = Float().with_variant(oracle.BINARY_FLOAT(), "oracle")
    >>> print(cast(literal(5.0), float_datatype).compile(dialect=oracle.dialect()))
    CAST(:param_1 AS BINARY_FLOAT)

E.g. to use this datatype in a :class:`.Table` definition::

    my_table = Table(
        "my_table",
        metadata,
        Column(
            "fp_data", Float().with_variant(oracle.BINARY_FLOAT(), "oracle")
        ),
    )

DateTime Compatibility
----------------------

Oracle Database has no datatype known as ``DATETIME``, it instead has only
``DATE``, which can actually store a date and time value.  For this reason, the
Oracle Database dialects provide a type :class:`_oracle.DATE` which is a
subclass of :class:`.DateTime`.  This type has no special behavior, and is only
present as a "marker" for this type; additionally, when a database column is
reflected and the type is reported as ``DATE``, the time-supporting
:class:`_oracle.DATE` type is used.

.. _oracle_table_options:

Oracle Database Table Options
-----------------------------

The CREATE TABLE phrase supports the following options with Oracle Database
dialects in conjunction with the :class:`_schema.Table` construct:


* ``ON COMMIT``::

    Table(
        "some_table",
        metadata,
        ...,
        prefixes=["GLOBAL TEMPORARY"],
        oracle_on_commit="PRESERVE ROWS",
    )

*
  ``COMPRESS``::

     Table(
         "mytable", metadata, Column("data", String(32)), oracle_compress=True
     )

     Table("mytable", metadata, Column("data", String(32)), oracle_compress=6)

  The ``oracle_compress`` parameter accepts either an integer compression
  level, or ``True`` to use the default compression level.

*
  ``TABLESPACE``::

     Table("mytable", metadata, ..., oracle_tablespace="EXAMPLE_TABLESPACE")

  The ``oracle_tablespace`` parameter specifies the tablespace in which the
  table is to be created. This is useful when you want to create a table in a
  tablespace other than the default tablespace of the user.

  .. versionadded:: 2.0.37

.. _oracle_index_options:

Oracle Database Specific Index Options
--------------------------------------

Bitmap Indexes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

You can specify the ``oracle_bitmap`` parameter to create a bitmap index
instead of a B-tree index::

    Index("my_index", my_table.c.data, oracle_bitmap=True)

Bitmap indexes cannot be unique and cannot be compressed. SQLAlchemy will not
check for such limitations, only the database will.

Index compression
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Oracle Database has a more efficient storage mode for indexes containing lots
of repeated values. Use the ``oracle_compress`` parameter to turn on key
compression::

    Index("my_index", my_table.c.data, oracle_compress=True)

    Index(
        "my_index",
        my_table.c.data1,
        my_table.c.data2,
        unique=True,
        oracle_compress=1,
    )

The ``oracle_compress`` parameter accepts either an integer specifying the
number of prefix columns to compress, or ``True`` to use the default (all
columns for non-unique indexes, all but the last column for unique indexes).

"""  # noqa

from __future__ import annotations

from collections import defaultdict
from functools import lru_cache
from functools import wraps
import re

from . import dictionary
from .types import _OracleBoolean
from .types import _OracleDate
from .types import BFILE
from .types import BINARY_DOUBLE
from .types import BINARY_FLOAT
from .types import DATE
from .types import FLOAT
from .types import INTERVAL
from .types import LONG
from .types import NCLOB
from .types import NUMBER
from .types import NVARCHAR2  # noqa
from .types import OracleRaw  # noqa
from .types import RAW
from .types import ROWID  # noqa
from .types import TIMESTAMP
from .types import VARCHAR2  # noqa
from ... import Computed
from ... import exc
from ... import schema as sa_schema
from ... import sql
from ... import util
from ...engine import default
from ...engine import ObjectKind
from ...engine import ObjectScope
from ...engine import reflection
from ...engine.reflection import ReflectionDefaults
from ...sql import and_
from ...sql import bindparam
from ...sql import compiler
from ...sql import expression
from ...sql import func
from ...sql import null
from ...sql import or_
from ...sql import select
from ...sql import sqltypes
from ...sql import util as sql_util
from ...sql import visitors
from ...sql.visitors import InternalTraversal
from ...types import BLOB
from ...types import CHAR
from ...types import CLOB
from ...types import DOUBLE_PRECISION
from ...types import INTEGER
from ...types import NCHAR
from ...types import NVARCHAR
from ...types import REAL
from ...types import VARCHAR

RESERVED_WORDS = set(
    "SHARE RAW DROP BETWEEN FROM DESC OPTION PRIOR LONG THEN "
    "DEFAULT ALTER IS INTO MINUS INTEGER NUMBER GRANT IDENTIFIED "
    "ALL TO ORDER ON FLOAT DATE HAVING CLUSTER NOWAIT RESOURCE "
    "ANY TABLE INDEX FOR UPDATE WHERE CHECK SMALLINT WITH DELETE "
    "BY ASC REVOKE LIKE SIZE RENAME NOCOMPRESS NULL GROUP VALUES "
    "AS IN VIEW EXCLUSIVE COMPRESS SYNONYM SELECT INSERT EXISTS "
    "NOT TRIGGER ELSE CREATE INTERSECT PCTFREE DISTINCT USER "
    "CONNECT SET MODE OF UNIQUE VARCHAR2 VARCHAR LOCK OR CHAR "
    "DECIMAL UNION PUBLIC AND START UID COMMENT CURRENT LEVEL".split()
)

NO_ARG_FNS = set(
    "UID CURRENT_DATE SYSDATE USER CURRENT_TIME CURRENT_TIMESTAMP".split()
)


colspecs = {
    sqltypes.Boolean: _OracleBoolean,
    sqltypes.Interval: INTERVAL,
    sqltypes.DateTime: DATE,
    sqltypes.Date: _OracleDate,
}

ischema_names = {
    "VARCHAR2": VARCHAR,
    "NVARCHAR2": NVARCHAR,
    "CHAR": CHAR,
    "NCHAR": NCHAR,
    "DATE": DATE,
    "NUMBER": NUMBER,
    "BLOB": BLOB,
    "BFILE": BFILE,
    "CLOB": CLOB,
    "NCLOB": NCLOB,
    "TIMESTAMP": TIMESTAMP,
    "TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE": TIMESTAMP,
    "TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE": TIMESTAMP,
    "INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND": INTERVAL,
    "RAW": RAW,
    "FLOAT": FLOAT,
    "DOUBLE PRECISION": DOUBLE_PRECISION,
    "REAL": REAL,
    "LONG": LONG,
    "BINARY_DOUBLE": BINARY_DOUBLE,
    "BINARY_FLOAT": BINARY_FLOAT,
    "ROWID": ROWID,
}


class OracleTypeCompiler(compiler.GenericTypeCompiler):
    # Note:
    # Oracle DATE == DATETIME
    # Oracle does not allow milliseconds in DATE
    # Oracle does not support TIME columns

    def visit_datetime(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_DATE(type_, **kw)

    def visit_float(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_FLOAT(type_, **kw)

    def visit_double(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_DOUBLE_PRECISION(type_, **kw)

    def visit_unicode(self, type_, **kw):
        if self.dialect._use_nchar_for_unicode:
            return self.visit_NVARCHAR2(type_, **kw)
        else:
            return self.visit_VARCHAR2(type_, **kw)

    def visit_INTERVAL(self, type_, **kw):
        return "INTERVAL DAY%s TO SECOND%s" % (
            type_.day_precision is not None
            and "(%d)" % type_.day_precision
            or "",
            type_.second_precision is not None
            and "(%d)" % type_.second_precision
            or "",
        )

    def visit_LONG(self, type_, **kw):
        return "LONG"

    def visit_TIMESTAMP(self, type_, **kw):
        if getattr(type_, "local_timezone", False):
            return "TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE"
        elif type_.timezone:
            return "TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE"
        else:
            return "TIMESTAMP"

    def visit_DOUBLE_PRECISION(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._generate_numeric(type_, "DOUBLE PRECISION", **kw)

    def visit_BINARY_DOUBLE(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._generate_numeric(type_, "BINARY_DOUBLE", **kw)

    def visit_BINARY_FLOAT(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._generate_numeric(type_, "BINARY_FLOAT", **kw)

    def visit_FLOAT(self, type_, **kw):
        kw["_requires_binary_precision"] = True
        return self._generate_numeric(type_, "FLOAT", **kw)

    def visit_NUMBER(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._generate_numeric(type_, "NUMBER", **kw)

    def _generate_numeric(
        self,
        type_,
        name,
        precision=None,
        scale=None,
        _requires_binary_precision=False,
        **kw,
    ):
        if precision is None:
            precision = getattr(type_, "precision", None)

        if _requires_binary_precision:
            binary_precision = getattr(type_, "binary_precision", None)

            if precision and binary_precision is None:
                # https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-basics/oracle-float/
                estimated_binary_precision = int(precision / 0.30103)
                raise exc.ArgumentError(
                    "Oracle Database FLOAT types use 'binary precision', "
                    "which does not convert cleanly from decimal "
                    "'precision'.  Please specify "
                    "this type with a separate Oracle Database variant, such "
                    f"as {type_.__class__.__name__}(precision={precision})."
                    f"with_variant(oracle.FLOAT"
                    f"(binary_precision="
                    f"{estimated_binary_precision}), 'oracle'), so that the "
                    "Oracle Database specific 'binary_precision' may be "
                    "specified accurately."
                )
            else:
                precision = binary_precision

        if scale is None:
            scale = getattr(type_, "scale", None)

        if precision is None:
            return name
        elif scale is None:
            n = "%(name)s(%(precision)s)"
            return n % {"name": name, "precision": precision}
        else:
            n = "%(name)s(%(precision)s, %(scale)s)"
            return n % {"name": name, "precision": precision, "scale": scale}

    def visit_string(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_VARCHAR2(type_, **kw)

    def visit_VARCHAR2(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._visit_varchar(type_, "", "2")

    def visit_NVARCHAR2(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._visit_varchar(type_, "N", "2")

    visit_NVARCHAR = visit_NVARCHAR2

    def visit_VARCHAR(self, type_, **kw):
        return self._visit_varchar(type_, "", "")

    def _visit_varchar(self, type_, n, num):
        if not type_.length:
            return "%(n)sVARCHAR%(two)s" % {"two": num, "n": n}
        elif not n and self.dialect._supports_char_length:
            varchar = "VARCHAR%(two)s(%(length)s CHAR)"
            return varchar % {"length": type_.length, "two": num}
        else:
            varchar = "%(n)sVARCHAR%(two)s(%(length)s)"
            return varchar % {"length": type_.length, "two": num, "n": n}

    def visit_text(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_CLOB(type_, **kw)

    def visit_unicode_text(self, type_, **kw):
        if self.dialect._use_nchar_for_unicode:
            return self.visit_NCLOB(type_, **kw)
        else:
            return self.visit_CLOB(type_, **kw)

    def visit_large_binary(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_BLOB(type_, **kw)

    def visit_big_integer(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_NUMBER(type_, precision=19, **kw)

    def visit_boolean(self, type_, **kw):
        return self.visit_SMALLINT(type_, **kw)

    def visit_RAW(self, type_, **kw):
        if type_.length:
            return "RAW(%(length)s)" % {"length": type_.length}
        else:
            return "RAW"

    def visit_ROWID(self, type_, **kw):
        return "ROWID"


class OracleCompiler(compiler.SQLCompiler):
    """Oracle compiler modifies the lexical structure of Select
    statements to work under non-ANSI configured Oracle databases, if
    the use_ansi flag is False.
    """

    compound_keywords = util.update_copy(
        compiler.SQLCompiler.compound_keywords,
        {expression.CompoundSelect.EXCEPT: "MINUS"},
    )

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        self.__wheres = {}
        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

    def visit_mod_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return "mod(%s, %s)" % (
            self.process(binary.left, **kw),
            self.process(binary.right, **kw),
        )

    def visit_now_func(self, fn, **kw):
        return "CURRENT_TIMESTAMP"

    def visit_char_length_func(self, fn, **kw):
        return "LENGTH" + self.function_argspec(fn, **kw)

    def visit_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return "CONTAINS (%s, %s)" % (
            self.process(binary.left),
            self.process(binary.right),
        )

    def visit_true(self, expr, **kw):
        return "1"

    def visit_false(self, expr, **kw):
        return "0"

    def get_cte_preamble(self, recursive):
        return "WITH"

    def get_select_hint_text(self, byfroms):
        return " ".join("/*+ %s */" % text for table, text in byfroms.items())

    def function_argspec(self, fn, **kw):
        if len(fn.clauses) > 0 or fn.name.upper() not in NO_ARG_FNS:
            return compiler.SQLCompiler.function_argspec(self, fn, **kw)
        else:
            return ""

    def visit_function(self, func, **kw):
        text = super().visit_function(func, **kw)
        if kw.get("asfrom", False) and func.name.lower() != "table":
            text = "TABLE (%s)" % text
        return text

    def visit_table_valued_column(self, element, **kw):
        text = super().visit_table_valued_column(element, **kw)
        text = text + ".COLUMN_VALUE"
        return text

    def default_from(self):
        """Called when a ``SELECT`` statement has no froms,
        and no ``FROM`` clause is to be appended.

        The Oracle compiler tacks a "FROM DUAL" to the statement.
        """

        return " FROM DUAL"

    def visit_join(self, join, from_linter=None, **kwargs):
        if self.dialect.use_ansi:
            return compiler.SQLCompiler.visit_join(
                self, join, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs
            )
        else:
            if from_linter:
                from_linter.edges.add((join.left, join.right))

            kwargs["asfrom"] = True
            if isinstance(join.right, expression.FromGrouping):
                right = join.right.element
            else:
                right = join.right
            return (
                self.process(join.left, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs)
                + ", "
                + self.process(right, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs)
            )

    def _get_nonansi_join_whereclause(self, froms):
        clauses = []

        def visit_join(join):
            if join.isouter:
                # https://docs.oracle.com/database/121/SQLRF/queries006.htm#SQLRF52354
                # "apply the outer join operator (+) to all columns of B in
                # the join condition in the WHERE clause" - that is,
                # unconditionally regardless of operator or the other side
                def visit_binary(binary):
                    if isinstance(
                        binary.left, expression.ColumnClause
                    ) and join.right.is_derived_from(binary.left.table):
                        binary.left = _OuterJoinColumn(binary.left)
                    elif isinstance(
                        binary.right, expression.ColumnClause
                    ) and join.right.is_derived_from(binary.right.table):
                        binary.right = _OuterJoinColumn(binary.right)

                clauses.append(
                    visitors.cloned_traverse(
                        join.onclause, {}, {"binary": visit_binary}
                    )
                )
            else:
                clauses.append(join.onclause)

            for j in join.left, join.right:
                if isinstance(j, expression.Join):
                    visit_join(j)
                elif isinstance(j, expression.FromGrouping):
                    visit_join(j.element)

        for f in froms:
            if isinstance(f, expression.Join):
                visit_join(f)

        if not clauses:
            return None
        else:
            return sql.and_(*clauses)

    def visit_outer_join_column(self, vc, **kw):
        return self.process(vc.column, **kw) + "(+)"

    def visit_sequence(self, seq, **kw):
        return self.preparer.format_sequence(seq) + ".nextval"

    def get_render_as_alias_suffix(self, alias_name_text):
        """Oracle doesn't like ``FROM table AS alias``"""

        return " " + alias_name_text

    def returning_clause(
        self, stmt, returning_cols, *, populate_result_map, **kw
    ):
        columns = []
        binds = []

        for i, column in enumerate(
            expression._select_iterables(returning_cols)
        ):
            if (
                self.isupdate
                and isinstance(column, sa_schema.Column)
                and isinstance(column.server_default, Computed)
                and not self.dialect._supports_update_returning_computed_cols
            ):
                util.warn(
                    "Computed columns don't work with Oracle Database UPDATE "
                    "statements that use RETURNING; the value of the column "
                    "*before* the UPDATE takes place is returned.   It is "
                    "advised to not use RETURNING with an Oracle Database "
                    "computed column.  Consider setting implicit_returning "
                    "to False on the Table object in order to avoid implicit "
                    "RETURNING clauses from being generated for this Table."
                )
            if column.type._has_column_expression:
                col_expr = column.type.column_expression(column)
            else:
                col_expr = column

            outparam = sql.outparam("ret_%d" % i, type_=column.type)
            self.binds[outparam.key] = outparam
            binds.append(
                self.bindparam_string(self._truncate_bindparam(outparam))
            )

            # has_out_parameters would in a normal case be set to True
            # as a result of the compiler visiting an outparam() object.
            # in this case, the above outparam() objects are not being
            # visited.   Ensure the statement itself didn't have other
            # outparam() objects independently.
            # technically, this could be supported, but as it would be
            # a very strange use case without a clear rationale, disallow it
            if self.has_out_parameters:
                raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
                    "Using explicit outparam() objects with "
                    "UpdateBase.returning() in the same Core DML statement "
                    "is not supported in the Oracle Database dialects."
                )

            self._oracle_returning = True

            columns.append(self.process(col_expr, within_columns_clause=False))
            if populate_result_map:
                self._add_to_result_map(
                    getattr(col_expr, "name", col_expr._anon_name_label),
                    getattr(col_expr, "name", col_expr._anon_name_label),
                    (
                        column,
                        getattr(column, "name", None),
                        getattr(column, "key", None),
                    ),
                    column.type,
                )

        return "RETURNING " + ", ".join(columns) + " INTO " + ", ".join(binds)

    def _row_limit_clause(self, select, **kw):
        """Oracle Database 12c supports OFFSET/FETCH operators
        Use it instead subquery with row_number

        """

        if (
            select._fetch_clause is not None
            or not self.dialect._supports_offset_fetch
        ):
            return super()._row_limit_clause(
                select, use_literal_execute_for_simple_int=True, **kw
            )
        else:
            return self.fetch_clause(
                select,
                fetch_clause=self._get_limit_or_fetch(select),
                use_literal_execute_for_simple_int=True,
                **kw,
            )

    def _get_limit_or_fetch(self, select):
        if select._fetch_clause is None:
            return select._limit_clause
        else:
            return select._fetch_clause

    def translate_select_structure(self, select_stmt, **kwargs):
        select = select_stmt

        if not getattr(select, "_oracle_visit", None):
            if not self.dialect.use_ansi:
                froms = self._display_froms_for_select(
                    select, kwargs.get("asfrom", False)
                )
                whereclause = self._get_nonansi_join_whereclause(froms)
                if whereclause is not None:
                    select = select.where(whereclause)
                    select._oracle_visit = True

            # if fetch is used this is not needed
            if (
                select._has_row_limiting_clause
                and not self.dialect._supports_offset_fetch
                and select._fetch_clause is None
            ):
                limit_clause = select._limit_clause
                offset_clause = select._offset_clause

                if select._simple_int_clause(limit_clause):
                    limit_clause = limit_clause.render_literal_execute()

                if select._simple_int_clause(offset_clause):
                    offset_clause = offset_clause.render_literal_execute()

                # currently using form at:
                # https://blogs.oracle.com/oraclemagazine/\
                # on-rownum-and-limiting-results

                orig_select = select
                select = select._generate()
                select._oracle_visit = True

                # add expressions to accommodate FOR UPDATE OF
                for_update = select._for_update_arg
                if for_update is not None and for_update.of:
                    for_update = for_update._clone()
                    for_update._copy_internals()

                    for elem in for_update.of:
                        if not select.selected_columns.contains_column(elem):
                            select = select.add_columns(elem)

                # Wrap the middle select and add the hint
                inner_subquery = select.alias()
                limitselect = sql.select(
                    *[
                        c
                        for c in inner_subquery.c
                        if orig_select.selected_columns.corresponding_column(c)
                        is not None
                    ]
                )

                if (
                    limit_clause is not None
                    and self.dialect.optimize_limits
                    and select._simple_int_clause(limit_clause)
                ):
                    limitselect = limitselect.prefix_with(
                        expression.text(
                            "/*+ FIRST_ROWS(%s) */"
                            % self.process(limit_clause, **kwargs)
                        )
                    )

                limitselect._oracle_visit = True
                limitselect._is_wrapper = True

                # add expressions to accommodate FOR UPDATE OF
                if for_update is not None and for_update.of:
                    adapter = sql_util.ClauseAdapter(inner_subquery)
                    for_update.of = [
                        adapter.traverse(elem) for elem in for_update.of
                    ]

                # If needed, add the limiting clause
                if limit_clause is not None:
                    if select._simple_int_clause(limit_clause) and (
                        offset_clause is None
                        or select._simple_int_clause(offset_clause)
                    ):
                        max_row = limit_clause

                        if offset_clause is not None:
                            max_row = max_row + offset_clause

                    else:
                        max_row = limit_clause

                        if offset_clause is not None:
                            max_row = max_row + offset_clause
                    limitselect = limitselect.where(
                        sql.literal_column("ROWNUM") <= max_row
                    )

                # If needed, add the ora_rn, and wrap again with offset.
                if offset_clause is None:
                    limitselect._for_update_arg = for_update
                    select = limitselect
                else:
                    limitselect = limitselect.add_columns(
                        sql.literal_column("ROWNUM").label("ora_rn")
                    )
                    limitselect._oracle_visit = True
                    limitselect._is_wrapper = True

                    if for_update is not None and for_update.of:
                        limitselect_cols = limitselect.selected_columns
                        for elem in for_update.of:
                            if (
                                limitselect_cols.corresponding_column(elem)
                                is None
                            ):
                                limitselect = limitselect.add_columns(elem)

                    limit_subquery = limitselect.alias()
                    origselect_cols = orig_select.selected_columns
                    offsetselect = sql.select(
                        *[
                            c
                            for c in limit_subquery.c
                            if origselect_cols.corresponding_column(c)
                            is not None
                        ]
                    )

                    offsetselect._oracle_visit = True
                    offsetselect._is_wrapper = True

                    if for_update is not None and for_update.of:
                        adapter = sql_util.ClauseAdapter(limit_subquery)
                        for_update.of = [
                            adapter.traverse(elem) for elem in for_update.of
                        ]

                    offsetselect = offsetselect.where(
                        sql.literal_column("ora_rn") > offset_clause
                    )

                    offsetselect._for_update_arg = for_update
                    select = offsetselect

        return select

    def limit_clause(self, select, **kw):
        return ""

    def visit_empty_set_expr(self, type_, **kw):
        return "SELECT 1 FROM DUAL WHERE 1!=1"

    def for_update_clause(self, select, **kw):
        if self.is_subquery():
            return ""

        tmp = " FOR UPDATE"

        if select._for_update_arg.of:
            tmp += " OF " + ", ".join(
                self.process(elem, **kw) for elem in select._for_update_arg.of
            )

        if select._for_update_arg.nowait:
            tmp += " NOWAIT"
        if select._for_update_arg.skip_locked:
            tmp += " SKIP LOCKED"

        return tmp

    def visit_is_distinct_from_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return "DECODE(%s, %s, 0, 1) = 1" % (
            self.process(binary.left),
            self.process(binary.right),
        )

    def visit_is_not_distinct_from_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return "DECODE(%s, %s, 0, 1) = 0" % (
            self.process(binary.left),
            self.process(binary.right),
        )

    def visit_regexp_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        string = self.process(binary.left, **kw)
        pattern = self.process(binary.right, **kw)
        flags = binary.modifiers["flags"]
        if flags is None:
            return "REGEXP_LIKE(%s, %s)" % (string, pattern)
        else:
            return "REGEXP_LIKE(%s, %s, %s)" % (
                string,
                pattern,
                self.render_literal_value(flags, sqltypes.STRINGTYPE),
            )

    def visit_not_regexp_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return "NOT %s" % self.visit_regexp_match_op_binary(
            binary, operator, **kw
        )

    def visit_regexp_replace_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        string = self.process(binary.left, **kw)
        pattern_replace = self.process(binary.right, **kw)
        flags = binary.modifiers["flags"]
        if flags is None:
            return "REGEXP_REPLACE(%s, %s)" % (
                string,
                pattern_replace,
            )
        else:
            return "REGEXP_REPLACE(%s, %s, %s)" % (
                string,
                pattern_replace,
                self.render_literal_value(flags, sqltypes.STRINGTYPE),
            )

    def visit_aggregate_strings_func(self, fn, **kw):
        return "LISTAGG%s" % self.function_argspec(fn, **kw)

    def _visit_bitwise(self, binary, fn_name, custom_right=None, **kw):
        left = self.process(binary.left, **kw)
        right = self.process(
            custom_right if custom_right is not None else binary.right, **kw
        )
        return f"{fn_name}({left}, {right})"

    def visit_bitwise_xor_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return self._visit_bitwise(binary, "BITXOR", **kw)

    def visit_bitwise_or_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return self._visit_bitwise(binary, "BITOR", **kw)

    def visit_bitwise_and_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        return self._visit_bitwise(binary, "BITAND", **kw)

    def visit_bitwise_rshift_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        raise exc.CompileError("Cannot compile bitwise_rshift in oracle")

    def visit_bitwise_lshift_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
        raise exc.CompileError("Cannot compile bitwise_lshift in oracle")

    def visit_bitwise_not_op_unary_operator(self, element, operator, **kw):
        raise exc.CompileError("Cannot compile bitwise_not in oracle")


class OracleDDLCompiler(compiler.DDLCompiler):
    def define_constraint_cascades(self, constraint):
        text = ""
        if constraint.ondelete is not None:
            text += " ON DELETE %s" % constraint.ondelete

        # oracle has no ON UPDATE CASCADE -
        # its only available via triggers
        # https://web.archive.org/web/20090317041251/https://asktom.oracle.com/tkyte/update_cascade/index.html
        if constraint.onupdate is not None:
            util.warn(
                "Oracle Database does not contain native UPDATE CASCADE "
                "functionality - onupdates will not be rendered for foreign "
                "keys.  Consider using deferrable=True, initially='deferred' "
                "or triggers."
            )

        return text

    def visit_drop_table_comment(self, drop, **kw):
        return "COMMENT ON TABLE %s IS ''" % self.preparer.format_table(
            drop.element
        )

    def visit_create_index(self, create, **kw):
        index = create.element
        self._verify_index_table(index)
        preparer = self.preparer
        text = "CREATE "
        if index.unique:
            text += "UNIQUE "
        if index.dialect_options["oracle"]["bitmap"]:
            text += "BITMAP "
        text += "INDEX %s ON %s (%s)" % (
            self._prepared_index_name(index, include_schema=True),
            preparer.format_table(index.table, use_schema=True),
            ", ".join(
                self.sql_compiler.process(
                    expr, include_table=False, literal_binds=True
                )
                for expr in index.expressions
            ),
        )
        if index.dialect_options["oracle"]["compress"] is not False:
            if index.dialect_options["oracle"]["compress"] is True:
                text += " COMPRESS"
            else:
                text += " COMPRESS %d" % (
                    index.dialect_options["oracle"]["compress"]
                )
        return text

    def post_create_table(self, table):
        table_opts = []
        opts = table.dialect_options["oracle"]

        if opts["on_commit"]:
            on_commit_options = opts["on_commit"].replace("_", " ").upper()
            table_opts.append("\n ON COMMIT %s" % on_commit_options)

        if opts["compress"]:
            if opts["compress"] is True:
                table_opts.append("\n COMPRESS")
            else:
                table_opts.append("\n COMPRESS FOR %s" % (opts["compress"]))
        if opts["tablespace"]:
            table_opts.append(
                "\n TABLESPACE %s" % self.preparer.quote(opts["tablespace"])
            )
        return "".join(table_opts)

    def get_identity_options(self, identity_options):
        text = super().get_identity_options(identity_options)
        text = text.replace("NO MINVALUE", "NOMINVALUE")
        text = text.replace("NO MAXVALUE", "NOMAXVALUE")
        text = text.replace("NO CYCLE", "NOCYCLE")
        if identity_options.order is not None:
            text += " ORDER" if identity_options.order else " NOORDER"
        return text.strip()

    def visit_computed_column(self, generated, **kw):
        text = "GENERATED ALWAYS AS (%s)" % self.sql_compiler.process(
            generated.sqltext, include_table=False, literal_binds=True
        )
        if generated.persisted is True:
            raise exc.CompileError(
                "Oracle Database computed columns do not support 'stored' "
                "persistence; set the 'persisted' flag to None or False for "
                "Oracle Database support."
            )
        elif generated.persisted is False:
            text += " VIRTUAL"
        return text

    def visit_identity_column(self, identity, **kw):
        if identity.always is None:
            kind = ""
        else:
            kind = "ALWAYS" if identity.always else "BY DEFAULT"
        text = "GENERATED %s" % kind
        if identity.on_null:
            text += " ON NULL"
        text += " AS IDENTITY"
        options = self.get_identity_options(identity)
        if options:
            text += " (%s)" % options
        return text


class OracleIdentifierPreparer(compiler.IdentifierPreparer):
    reserved_words = {x.lower() for x in RESERVED_WORDS}
    illegal_initial_characters = {str(dig) for dig in range(0, 10)}.union(
        ["_", "$"]
    )

    def _bindparam_requires_quotes(self, value):
        """Return True if the given identifier requires quoting."""
        lc_value = value.lower()
        return (
            lc_value in self.reserved_words
            or value[0] in self.illegal_initial_characters
            or not self.legal_characters.match(str(value))
        )

    def format_savepoint(self, savepoint):
        name = savepoint.ident.lstrip("_")
        return super().format_savepoint(savepoint, name)


class OracleExecutionContext(default.DefaultExecutionContext):
    def fire_sequence(self, seq, type_):
        return self._execute_scalar(
            "SELECT "
            + self.identifier_preparer.format_sequence(seq)
            + ".nextval FROM DUAL",
            type_,
        )

    def pre_exec(self):
        if self.statement and "_oracle_dblink" in self.execution_options:
            self.statement = self.statement.replace(
                dictionary.DB_LINK_PLACEHOLDER,
                self.execution_options["_oracle_dblink"],
            )


class OracleDialect(default.DefaultDialect):
    name = "oracle"
    supports_statement_cache = True
    supports_alter = True
    max_identifier_length = 128

    _supports_offset_fetch = True

    insert_returning = True
    update_returning = True
    delete_returning = True

    div_is_floordiv = False

    supports_simple_order_by_label = False
    cte_follows_insert = True
    returns_native_bytes = True

    supports_sequences = True
    sequences_optional = False
    postfetch_lastrowid = False

    default_paramstyle = "named"
    colspecs = colspecs
    ischema_names = ischema_names
    requires_name_normalize = True

    supports_comments = True

    supports_default_values = False
    supports_default_metavalue = True
    supports_empty_insert = False
    supports_identity_columns = True

    statement_compiler = OracleCompiler
    ddl_compiler = OracleDDLCompiler
    type_compiler_cls = OracleTypeCompiler
    preparer = OracleIdentifierPreparer
    execution_ctx_cls = OracleExecutionContext

    reflection_options = ("oracle_resolve_synonyms",)

    _use_nchar_for_unicode = False

    construct_arguments = [
        (
            sa_schema.Table,
            {
                "resolve_synonyms": False,
                "on_commit": None,
                "compress": False,
                "tablespace": None,
            },
        ),
        (sa_schema.Index, {"bitmap": False, "compress": False}),
    ]

    @util.deprecated_params(
        use_binds_for_limits=(
            "1.4",
            "The ``use_binds_for_limits`` Oracle Database dialect parameter "
            "is deprecated. The dialect now renders LIMIT / OFFSET integers "
            "inline in all cases using a post-compilation hook, so that the "
            "value is still represented by a 'bound parameter' on the Core "
            "Expression side.",
        )
    )
    def __init__(
        self,
        use_ansi=True,
        optimize_limits=False,
        use_binds_for_limits=None,
        use_nchar_for_unicode=False,
        exclude_tablespaces=("SYSTEM", "SYSAUX"),
        enable_offset_fetch=True,
        **kwargs,
    ):
        default.DefaultDialect.__init__(self, **kwargs)
        self._use_nchar_for_unicode = use_nchar_for_unicode
        self.use_ansi = use_ansi
        self.optimize_limits = optimize_limits
        self.exclude_tablespaces = exclude_tablespaces
        self.enable_offset_fetch = self._supports_offset_fetch = (
            enable_offset_fetch
        )

    def initialize(self, connection):
        super().initialize(connection)

        # Oracle 8i has RETURNING:
        # https://docs.oracle.com/cd/A87860_01/doc/index.htm

        # so does Oracle8:
        # https://docs.oracle.com/cd/A64702_01/doc/index.htm

        if self._is_oracle_8:
            self.colspecs = self.colspecs.copy()
            self.colspecs.pop(sqltypes.Interval)
            self.use_ansi = False

        self.supports_identity_columns = self.server_version_info >= (12,)
        self._supports_offset_fetch = (
            self.enable_offset_fetch and self.server_version_info >= (12,)
        )

    def _get_effective_compat_server_version_info(self, connection):
        # dialect does not need compat levels below 12.2, so don't query
        # in those cases

        if self.server_version_info < (12, 2):
            return self.server_version_info
        try:
            compat = connection.exec_driver_sql(
                "SELECT value FROM v$parameter WHERE name = 'compatible'"
            ).scalar()
        except exc.DBAPIError:
            compat = None

        if compat:
            try:
                return tuple(int(x) for x in compat.split("."))
            except:
                return self.server_version_info
        else:
            return self.server_version_info

    @property
    def _is_oracle_8(self):
        return self.server_version_info and self.server_version_info < (9,)

    @property
    def _supports_table_compression(self):
        return self.server_version_info and self.server_version_info >= (10, 1)

    @property
    def _supports_table_compress_for(self):
        return self.server_version_info and self.server_version_info >= (11,)

    @property
    def _supports_char_length(self):
        return not self._is_oracle_8

    @property
    def _supports_update_returning_computed_cols(self):
        # on version 18 this error is no longet present while it happens on 11
        # it may work also on versions before the 18
        return self.server_version_info and self.server_version_info >= (18,)

    @property
    def _supports_except_all(self):
        return self.server_version_info and self.server_version_info >= (21,)

    def do_release_savepoint(self, connection, name):
        # Oracle does not support RELEASE SAVEPOINT
        pass

    def _check_max_identifier_length(self, connection):
        if self._get_effective_compat_server_version_info(connection) < (
            12,
            2,
        ):
            return 30
        else:
            # use the default
            return None

    def get_isolation_level_values(self, dbapi_connection):
        return ["READ COMMITTED", "SERIALIZABLE"]

    def get_default_isolation_level(self, dbapi_conn):
        try:
            return self.get_isolation_level(dbapi_conn)
        except NotImplementedError:
            raise
        except:
            return "READ COMMITTED"

    def _execute_reflection(
        self, connection, query, dblink, returns_long, params=None
    ):
        if dblink and not dblink.startswith("@"):
            dblink = f"@{dblink}"
        execution_options = {
            # handle db links
            "_oracle_dblink": dblink or "",
            # override any schema translate map
            "schema_translate_map": None,
        }

        if dblink and returns_long:
            # Oracle seems to error with
            # "ORA-00997: illegal use of LONG datatype" when returning
            # LONG columns via a dblink in a query with bind params
            # This type seems to be very hard to cast into something else
            # so it seems easier to just use bind param in this case
            def visit_bindparam(bindparam):
                bindparam.literal_execute = True

            query = visitors.cloned_traverse(
                query, {}, {"bindparam": visit_bindparam}
            )
        return connection.execute(
            query, params, execution_options=execution_options
        )

    @util.memoized_property
    def _has_table_query(self):
        # materialized views are returned by all_tables
        tables = (
            select(
                dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name,
                dictionary.all_tables.c.owner,
            )
            .union_all(
                select(
                    dictionary.all_views.c.view_name.label("table_name"),
                    dictionary.all_views.c.owner,
                )
            )
            .subquery("tables_and_views")
        )

        query = select(tables.c.table_name).where(
            tables.c.table_name == bindparam("table_name"),
            tables.c.owner == bindparam("owner"),
        )
        return query

    @reflection.cache
    def has_table(
        self, connection, table_name, schema=None, dblink=None, **kw
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        self._ensure_has_table_connection(connection)

        if not schema:
            schema = self.default_schema_name

        params = {
            "table_name": self.denormalize_name(table_name),
            "owner": self.denormalize_schema_name(schema),
        }
        cursor = self._execute_reflection(
            connection,
            self._has_table_query,
            dblink,
            returns_long=False,
            params=params,
        )
        return bool(cursor.scalar())

    @reflection.cache
    def has_sequence(
        self, connection, sequence_name, schema=None, dblink=None, **kw
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        if not schema:
            schema = self.default_schema_name

        query = select(dictionary.all_sequences.c.sequence_name).where(
            dictionary.all_sequences.c.sequence_name
            == self.denormalize_schema_name(sequence_name),
            dictionary.all_sequences.c.sequence_owner
            == self.denormalize_schema_name(schema),
        )

        cursor = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        )
        return bool(cursor.scalar())

    def _get_default_schema_name(self, connection):
        return self.normalize_name(
            connection.exec_driver_sql(
                "select sys_context( 'userenv', 'current_schema' ) from dual"
            ).scalar()
        )

    def denormalize_schema_name(self, name):
        # look for quoted_name
        force = getattr(name, "quote", None)
        if force is None and name == "public":
            # look for case insensitive, no quoting specified, "public"
            return "PUBLIC"
        return super().denormalize_name(name)

    @reflection.flexi_cache(
        ("schema", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
        ("filter_names", InternalTraversal.dp_string_list),
        ("dblink", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
    )
    def _get_synonyms(self, connection, schema, filter_names, dblink, **kw):
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )

        has_filter_names, params = self._prepare_filter_names(filter_names)
        query = select(
            dictionary.all_synonyms.c.synonym_name,
            dictionary.all_synonyms.c.table_name,
            dictionary.all_synonyms.c.table_owner,
            dictionary.all_synonyms.c.db_link,
        ).where(dictionary.all_synonyms.c.owner == owner)
        if has_filter_names:
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.synonym_name.in_(
                    params["filter_names"]
                )
            )
        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).mappings()
        return result.all()

    @lru_cache()
    def _all_objects_query(
        self, owner, scope, kind, has_filter_names, has_mat_views
    ):
        query = (
            select(dictionary.all_objects.c.object_name)
            .select_from(dictionary.all_objects)
            .where(dictionary.all_objects.c.owner == owner)
        )

        # NOTE: materialized views are listed in all_objects twice;
        # once as MATERIALIZE VIEW and once as TABLE
        if kind is ObjectKind.ANY:
            # materilaized view are listed also as tables so there is no
            # need to add them to the in_.
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_objects.c.object_type.in_(("TABLE", "VIEW"))
            )
        else:
            object_type = []
            if ObjectKind.VIEW in kind:
                object_type.append("VIEW")
            if (
                ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW in kind
                and ObjectKind.TABLE not in kind
            ):
                # materilaized view are listed also as tables so there is no
                # need to add them to the in_ if also selecting tables.
                object_type.append("MATERIALIZED VIEW")
            if ObjectKind.TABLE in kind:
                object_type.append("TABLE")
                if has_mat_views and ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW not in kind:
                    # materialized view are listed also as tables,
                    # so they need to be filtered out
                    # EXCEPT ALL / MINUS profiles as faster than using
                    # NOT EXISTS or NOT IN with a subquery, but it's in
                    # general faster to get the mat view names and exclude
                    # them only when needed
                    query = query.where(
                        dictionary.all_objects.c.object_name.not_in(
                            bindparam("mat_views")
                        )
                    )
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_objects.c.object_type.in_(object_type)
            )

        # handles scope
        if scope is ObjectScope.DEFAULT:
            query = query.where(dictionary.all_objects.c.temporary == "N")
        elif scope is ObjectScope.TEMPORARY:
            query = query.where(dictionary.all_objects.c.temporary == "Y")

        if has_filter_names:
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_objects.c.object_name.in_(
                    bindparam("filter_names")
                )
            )
        return query

    @reflection.flexi_cache(
        ("schema", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
        ("scope", InternalTraversal.dp_plain_obj),
        ("kind", InternalTraversal.dp_plain_obj),
        ("filter_names", InternalTraversal.dp_string_list),
        ("dblink", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
    )
    def _get_all_objects(
        self, connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
    ):
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )

        has_filter_names, params = self._prepare_filter_names(filter_names)
        has_mat_views = False
        if (
            ObjectKind.TABLE in kind
            and ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW not in kind
        ):
            # see note in _all_objects_query
            mat_views = self.get_materialized_view_names(
                connection, schema, dblink, _normalize=False, **kw
            )
            if mat_views:
                params["mat_views"] = mat_views
                has_mat_views = True

        query = self._all_objects_query(
            owner, scope, kind, has_filter_names, has_mat_views
        )

        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False, params=params
        ).scalars()

        return result.all()

    def _handle_synonyms_decorator(fn):
        @wraps(fn)
        def wrapper(self, *args, **kwargs):
            return self._handle_synonyms(fn, *args, **kwargs)

        return wrapper

    def _handle_synonyms(self, fn, connection, *args, **kwargs):
        if not kwargs.get("oracle_resolve_synonyms", False):
            return fn(self, connection, *args, **kwargs)

        original_kw = kwargs.copy()
        schema = kwargs.pop("schema", None)
        result = self._get_synonyms(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=kwargs.pop("filter_names", None),
            dblink=kwargs.pop("dblink", None),
            info_cache=kwargs.get("info_cache", None),
        )

        dblinks_owners = defaultdict(dict)
        for row in result:
            key = row["db_link"], row["table_owner"]
            tn = self.normalize_name(row["table_name"])
            dblinks_owners[key][tn] = row["synonym_name"]

        if not dblinks_owners:
            # No synonym, do the plain thing
            return fn(self, connection, *args, **original_kw)

        data = {}
        for (dblink, table_owner), mapping in dblinks_owners.items():
            call_kw = {
                **original_kw,
                "schema": table_owner,
                "dblink": self.normalize_name(dblink),
                "filter_names": mapping.keys(),
            }
            call_result = fn(self, connection, *args, **call_kw)
            for (_, tn), value in call_result:
                synonym_name = self.normalize_name(mapping[tn])
                data[(schema, synonym_name)] = value
        return data.items()

    @reflection.cache
    def get_schema_names(self, connection, dblink=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        query = select(dictionary.all_users.c.username).order_by(
            dictionary.all_users.c.username
        )
        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        return [self.normalize_name(row) for row in result]

    @reflection.cache
    def get_table_names(self, connection, schema=None, dblink=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        # note that table_names() isn't loading DBLINKed or synonym'ed tables
        if schema is None:
            schema = self.default_schema_name

        den_schema = self.denormalize_schema_name(schema)
        if kw.get("oracle_resolve_synonyms", False):
            tables = (
                select(
                    dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name,
                    dictionary.all_tables.c.owner,
                    dictionary.all_tables.c.iot_name,
                    dictionary.all_tables.c.duration,
                    dictionary.all_tables.c.tablespace_name,
                )
                .union_all(
                    select(
                        dictionary.all_synonyms.c.synonym_name.label(
                            "table_name"
                        ),
                        dictionary.all_synonyms.c.owner,
                        dictionary.all_tables.c.iot_name,
                        dictionary.all_tables.c.duration,
                        dictionary.all_tables.c.tablespace_name,
                    )
                    .select_from(dictionary.all_tables)
                    .join(
                        dictionary.all_synonyms,
                        and_(
                            dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name
                            == dictionary.all_synonyms.c.table_name,
                            dictionary.all_tables.c.owner
                            == func.coalesce(
                                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.table_owner,
                                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.owner,
                            ),
                        ),
                    )
                )
                .subquery("available_tables")
            )
        else:
            tables = dictionary.all_tables

        query = select(tables.c.table_name)
        if self.exclude_tablespaces:
            query = query.where(
                func.coalesce(
                    tables.c.tablespace_name, "no tablespace"
                ).not_in(self.exclude_tablespaces)
            )
        query = query.where(
            tables.c.owner == den_schema,
            tables.c.iot_name.is_(null()),
            tables.c.duration.is_(null()),
        )

        # remove materialized views
        mat_query = select(
            dictionary.all_mviews.c.mview_name.label("table_name")
        ).where(dictionary.all_mviews.c.owner == den_schema)

        query = (
            query.except_all(mat_query)
            if self._supports_except_all
            else query.except_(mat_query)
        )

        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        return [self.normalize_name(row) for row in result]

    @reflection.cache
    def get_temp_table_names(self, connection, dblink=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        schema = self.denormalize_schema_name(self.default_schema_name)

        query = select(dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name)
        if self.exclude_tablespaces:
            query = query.where(
                func.coalesce(
                    dictionary.all_tables.c.tablespace_name, "no tablespace"
                ).not_in(self.exclude_tablespaces)
            )
        query = query.where(
            dictionary.all_tables.c.owner == schema,
            dictionary.all_tables.c.iot_name.is_(null()),
            dictionary.all_tables.c.duration.is_not(null()),
        )

        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        return [self.normalize_name(row) for row in result]

    @reflection.cache
    def get_materialized_view_names(
        self, connection, schema=None, dblink=None, _normalize=True, **kw
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        if not schema:
            schema = self.default_schema_name

        query = select(dictionary.all_mviews.c.mview_name).where(
            dictionary.all_mviews.c.owner
            == self.denormalize_schema_name(schema)
        )
        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        if _normalize:
            return [self.normalize_name(row) for row in result]
        else:
            return result.all()

    @reflection.cache
    def get_view_names(self, connection, schema=None, dblink=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        if not schema:
            schema = self.default_schema_name

        query = select(dictionary.all_views.c.view_name).where(
            dictionary.all_views.c.owner
            == self.denormalize_schema_name(schema)
        )
        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        return [self.normalize_name(row) for row in result]

    @reflection.cache
    def get_sequence_names(self, connection, schema=None, dblink=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link."""
        if not schema:
            schema = self.default_schema_name
        query = select(dictionary.all_sequences.c.sequence_name).where(
            dictionary.all_sequences.c.sequence_owner
            == self.denormalize_schema_name(schema)
        )

        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        return [self.normalize_name(row) for row in result]

    def _value_or_raise(self, data, table, schema):
        table = self.normalize_name(str(table))
        try:
            return dict(data)[(schema, table)]
        except KeyError:
            raise exc.NoSuchTableError(
                f"{schema}.{table}" if schema else table
            ) from None

    def _prepare_filter_names(self, filter_names):
        if filter_names:
            fn = [self.denormalize_name(name) for name in filter_names]
            return True, {"filter_names": fn}
        else:
            return False, {}

    @reflection.cache
    def get_table_options(self, connection, table_name, schema=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_table_options(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @lru_cache()
    def _table_options_query(
        self, owner, scope, kind, has_filter_names, has_mat_views
    ):
        query = select(
            dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name,
            (
                dictionary.all_tables.c.compression
                if self._supports_table_compression
                else sql.null().label("compression")
            ),
            (
                dictionary.all_tables.c.compress_for
                if self._supports_table_compress_for
                else sql.null().label("compress_for")
            ),
            dictionary.all_tables.c.tablespace_name,
        ).where(dictionary.all_tables.c.owner == owner)
        if has_filter_names:
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name.in_(
                    bindparam("filter_names")
                )
            )
        if scope is ObjectScope.DEFAULT:
            query = query.where(dictionary.all_tables.c.duration.is_(null()))
        elif scope is ObjectScope.TEMPORARY:
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_tables.c.duration.is_not(null())
            )

        if (
            has_mat_views
            and ObjectKind.TABLE in kind
            and ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW not in kind
        ):
            # cant use EXCEPT ALL / MINUS here because we don't have an
            # excludable row vs. the query above
            # outerjoin + where null works better on oracle 21 but 11 does
            # not like it at all. this is the next best thing

            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name.not_in(
                    bindparam("mat_views")
                )
            )
        elif (
            ObjectKind.TABLE not in kind
            and ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW in kind
        ):
            query = query.where(
                dictionary.all_tables.c.table_name.in_(bindparam("mat_views"))
            )
        return query

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_table_options(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        scope,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )

        has_filter_names, params = self._prepare_filter_names(filter_names)
        has_mat_views = False

        if (
            ObjectKind.TABLE in kind
            and ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW not in kind
        ):
            # see note in _table_options_query
            mat_views = self.get_materialized_view_names(
                connection, schema, dblink, _normalize=False, **kw
            )
            if mat_views:
                params["mat_views"] = mat_views
                has_mat_views = True
        elif (
            ObjectKind.TABLE not in kind
            and ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW in kind
        ):
            mat_views = self.get_materialized_view_names(
                connection, schema, dblink, _normalize=False, **kw
            )
            params["mat_views"] = mat_views

        options = {}
        default = ReflectionDefaults.table_options

        if ObjectKind.TABLE in kind or ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW in kind:
            query = self._table_options_query(
                owner, scope, kind, has_filter_names, has_mat_views
            )
            result = self._execute_reflection(
                connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False, params=params
            )

            for table, compression, compress_for, tablespace in result:
                data = default()
                if compression == "ENABLED":
                    data["oracle_compress"] = compress_for
                if tablespace:
                    data["oracle_tablespace"] = tablespace
                options[(schema, self.normalize_name(table))] = data
        if ObjectKind.VIEW in kind and ObjectScope.DEFAULT in scope:
            # add the views (no temporary views)
            for view in self.get_view_names(connection, schema, dblink, **kw):
                if not filter_names or view in filter_names:
                    options[(schema, view)] = default()

        return options.items()

    @reflection.cache
    def get_columns(self, connection, table_name, schema=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """

        data = self.get_multi_columns(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    def _run_batches(
        self, connection, query, dblink, returns_long, mappings, all_objects
    ):
        each_batch = 500
        batches = list(all_objects)
        while batches:
            batch = batches[0:each_batch]
            batches[0:each_batch] = []

            result = self._execute_reflection(
                connection,
                query,
                dblink,
                returns_long=returns_long,
                params={"all_objects": batch},
            )
            if mappings:
                yield from result.mappings()
            else:
                yield from result

    @lru_cache()
    def _column_query(self, owner):
        all_cols = dictionary.all_tab_cols
        all_comments = dictionary.all_col_comments
        all_ids = dictionary.all_tab_identity_cols

        if self.server_version_info >= (12,):
            add_cols = (
                all_cols.c.default_on_null,
                sql.case(
                    (all_ids.c.table_name.is_(None), sql.null()),
                    else_=all_ids.c.generation_type
                    + ","
                    + all_ids.c.identity_options,
                ).label("identity_options"),
            )
            join_identity_cols = True
        else:
            add_cols = (
                sql.null().label("default_on_null"),
                sql.null().label("identity_options"),
            )
            join_identity_cols = False

        # NOTE: on oracle cannot create tables/views without columns and
        # a table cannot have all column hidden:
        # ORA-54039: table must have at least one column that is not invisible
        # all_tab_cols returns data for tables/views/mat-views.
        # all_tab_cols does not return recycled tables

        query = (
            select(
                all_cols.c.table_name,
                all_cols.c.column_name,
                all_cols.c.data_type,
                all_cols.c.char_length,
                all_cols.c.data_precision,
                all_cols.c.data_scale,
                all_cols.c.nullable,
                all_cols.c.data_default,
                all_comments.c.comments,
                all_cols.c.virtual_column,
                *add_cols,
            ).select_from(all_cols)
            # NOTE: all_col_comments has a row for each column even if no
            # comment is present, so a join could be performed, but there
            # seems to be no difference compared to an outer join
            .outerjoin(
                all_comments,
                and_(
                    all_cols.c.table_name == all_comments.c.table_name,
                    all_cols.c.column_name == all_comments.c.column_name,
                    all_cols.c.owner == all_comments.c.owner,
                ),
            )
        )
        if join_identity_cols:
            query = query.outerjoin(
                all_ids,
                and_(
                    all_cols.c.table_name == all_ids.c.table_name,
                    all_cols.c.column_name == all_ids.c.column_name,
                    all_cols.c.owner == all_ids.c.owner,
                ),
            )

        query = query.where(
            all_cols.c.table_name.in_(bindparam("all_objects")),
            all_cols.c.hidden_column == "NO",
            all_cols.c.owner == owner,
        ).order_by(all_cols.c.table_name, all_cols.c.column_id)
        return query

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_columns(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        scope,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )
        query = self._column_query(owner)

        if (
            filter_names
            and kind is ObjectKind.ANY
            and scope is ObjectScope.ANY
        ):
            all_objects = [self.denormalize_name(n) for n in filter_names]
        else:
            all_objects = self._get_all_objects(
                connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
            )

        columns = defaultdict(list)

        # all_tab_cols.data_default is LONG
        result = self._run_batches(
            connection,
            query,
            dblink,
            returns_long=True,
            mappings=True,
            all_objects=all_objects,
        )

        def maybe_int(value):
            if isinstance(value, float) and value.is_integer():
                return int(value)
            else:
                return value

        remove_size = re.compile(r"\(\d+\)")

        for row_dict in result:
            table_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["table_name"])
            orig_colname = row_dict["column_name"]
            colname = self.normalize_name(orig_colname)
            coltype = row_dict["data_type"]
            precision = maybe_int(row_dict["data_precision"])

            if coltype == "NUMBER":
                scale = maybe_int(row_dict["data_scale"])
                if precision is None and scale == 0:
                    coltype = INTEGER()
                else:
                    coltype = NUMBER(precision, scale)
            elif coltype == "FLOAT":
                # https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B14117_01/server.101/b10758/sqlqr06.htm
                if precision == 126:
                    # The DOUBLE PRECISION datatype is a floating-point
                    # number with binary precision 126.
                    coltype = DOUBLE_PRECISION()
                elif precision == 63:
                    # The REAL datatype is a floating-point number with a
                    # binary precision of 63, or 18 decimal.
                    coltype = REAL()
                else:
                    # non standard precision
                    coltype = FLOAT(binary_precision=precision)

            elif coltype in ("VARCHAR2", "NVARCHAR2", "CHAR", "NCHAR"):
                char_length = maybe_int(row_dict["char_length"])
                coltype = self.ischema_names.get(coltype)(char_length)
            elif "WITH TIME ZONE" in coltype:
                coltype = TIMESTAMP(timezone=True)
            elif "WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE" in coltype:
                coltype = TIMESTAMP(local_timezone=True)
            else:
                coltype = re.sub(remove_size, "", coltype)
                try:
                    coltype = self.ischema_names[coltype]
                except KeyError:
                    util.warn(
                        "Did not recognize type '%s' of column '%s'"
                        % (coltype, colname)
                    )
                    coltype = sqltypes.NULLTYPE

            default = row_dict["data_default"]
            if row_dict["virtual_column"] == "YES":
                computed = dict(sqltext=default)
                default = None
            else:
                computed = None

            identity_options = row_dict["identity_options"]
            if identity_options is not None:
                identity = self._parse_identity_options(
                    identity_options, row_dict["default_on_null"]
                )
                default = None
            else:
                identity = None

            cdict = {
                "name": colname,
                "type": coltype,
                "nullable": row_dict["nullable"] == "Y",
                "default": default,
                "comment": row_dict["comments"],
            }
            if orig_colname.lower() == orig_colname:
                cdict["quote"] = True
            if computed is not None:
                cdict["computed"] = computed
            if identity is not None:
                cdict["identity"] = identity

            columns[(schema, table_name)].append(cdict)

        # NOTE: default not needed since all tables have columns
        # default = ReflectionDefaults.columns
        # return (
        #     (key, value if value else default())
        #     for key, value in columns.items()
        # )
        return columns.items()

    def _parse_identity_options(self, identity_options, default_on_null):
        # identity_options is a string that starts with 'ALWAYS,' or
        # 'BY DEFAULT,' and continues with
        # START WITH: 1, INCREMENT BY: 1, MAX_VALUE: 123, MIN_VALUE: 1,
        # CYCLE_FLAG: N, CACHE_SIZE: 1, ORDER_FLAG: N, SCALE_FLAG: N,
        # EXTEND_FLAG: N, SESSION_FLAG: N, KEEP_VALUE: N
        parts = [p.strip() for p in identity_options.split(",")]
        identity = {
            "always": parts[0] == "ALWAYS",
            "on_null": default_on_null == "YES",
        }

        for part in parts[1:]:
            option, value = part.split(":")
            value = value.strip()

            if "START WITH" in option:
                identity["start"] = int(value)
            elif "INCREMENT BY" in option:
                identity["increment"] = int(value)
            elif "MAX_VALUE" in option:
                identity["maxvalue"] = int(value)
            elif "MIN_VALUE" in option:
                identity["minvalue"] = int(value)
            elif "CYCLE_FLAG" in option:
                identity["cycle"] = value == "Y"
            elif "CACHE_SIZE" in option:
                identity["cache"] = int(value)
            elif "ORDER_FLAG" in option:
                identity["order"] = value == "Y"
        return identity

    @reflection.cache
    def get_table_comment(self, connection, table_name, schema=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_table_comment(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @lru_cache()
    def _comment_query(self, owner, scope, kind, has_filter_names):
        # NOTE: all_tab_comments / all_mview_comments have a row for all
        # object even if they don't have comments
        queries = []
        if ObjectKind.TABLE in kind or ObjectKind.VIEW in kind:
            # all_tab_comments returns also plain views
            tbl_view = select(
                dictionary.all_tab_comments.c.table_name,
                dictionary.all_tab_comments.c.comments,
            ).where(
                dictionary.all_tab_comments.c.owner == owner,
                dictionary.all_tab_comments.c.table_name.not_like("BIN$%"),
            )
            if ObjectKind.VIEW not in kind:
                tbl_view = tbl_view.where(
                    dictionary.all_tab_comments.c.table_type == "TABLE"
                )
            elif ObjectKind.TABLE not in kind:
                tbl_view = tbl_view.where(
                    dictionary.all_tab_comments.c.table_type == "VIEW"
                )
            queries.append(tbl_view)
        if ObjectKind.MATERIALIZED_VIEW in kind:
            mat_view = select(
                dictionary.all_mview_comments.c.mview_name.label("table_name"),
                dictionary.all_mview_comments.c.comments,
            ).where(
                dictionary.all_mview_comments.c.owner == owner,
                dictionary.all_mview_comments.c.mview_name.not_like("BIN$%"),
            )
            queries.append(mat_view)
        if len(queries) == 1:
            query = queries[0]
        else:
            union = sql.union_all(*queries).subquery("tables_and_views")
            query = select(union.c.table_name, union.c.comments)

        name_col = query.selected_columns.table_name

        if scope in (ObjectScope.DEFAULT, ObjectScope.TEMPORARY):
            temp = "Y" if scope is ObjectScope.TEMPORARY else "N"
            # need distinct since materialized view are listed also
            # as tables in all_objects
            query = query.distinct().join(
                dictionary.all_objects,
                and_(
                    dictionary.all_objects.c.owner == owner,
                    dictionary.all_objects.c.object_name == name_col,
                    dictionary.all_objects.c.temporary == temp,
                ),
            )
        if has_filter_names:
            query = query.where(name_col.in_(bindparam("filter_names")))
        return query

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_table_comment(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        scope,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )
        has_filter_names, params = self._prepare_filter_names(filter_names)
        query = self._comment_query(owner, scope, kind, has_filter_names)

        result = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False, params=params
        )
        default = ReflectionDefaults.table_comment
        # materialized views by default seem to have a comment like
        # "snapshot table for snapshot owner.mat_view_name"
        ignore_mat_view = "snapshot table for snapshot "
        return (
            (
                (schema, self.normalize_name(table)),
                (
                    {"text": comment}
                    if comment is not None
                    and not comment.startswith(ignore_mat_view)
                    else default()
                ),
            )
            for table, comment in result
        )

    @reflection.cache
    def get_indexes(self, connection, table_name, schema=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_indexes(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @lru_cache()
    def _index_query(self, owner):
        return (
            select(
                dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.table_name,
                dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.index_name,
                dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.column_name,
                dictionary.all_indexes.c.index_type,
                dictionary.all_indexes.c.uniqueness,
                dictionary.all_indexes.c.compression,
                dictionary.all_indexes.c.prefix_length,
                dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.descend,
                dictionary.all_ind_expressions.c.column_expression,
            )
            .select_from(dictionary.all_ind_columns)
            .join(
                dictionary.all_indexes,
                sql.and_(
                    dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.index_name
                    == dictionary.all_indexes.c.index_name,
                    dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.index_owner
                    == dictionary.all_indexes.c.owner,
                ),
            )
            .outerjoin(
                # NOTE: this adds about 20% to the query time. Using a
                # case expression with a scalar subquery only when needed
                # with the assumption that most indexes are not expression
                # would be faster but oracle does not like that with
                # LONG datatype. It errors with:
                # ORA-00997: illegal use of LONG datatype
                dictionary.all_ind_expressions,
                sql.and_(
                    dictionary.all_ind_expressions.c.index_name
                    == dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.index_name,
                    dictionary.all_ind_expressions.c.index_owner
                    == dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.index_owner,
                    dictionary.all_ind_expressions.c.column_position
                    == dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.column_position,
                ),
            )
            .where(
                dictionary.all_indexes.c.table_owner == owner,
                dictionary.all_indexes.c.table_name.in_(
                    bindparam("all_objects")
                ),
            )
            .order_by(
                dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.index_name,
                dictionary.all_ind_columns.c.column_position,
            )
        )

    @reflection.flexi_cache(
        ("schema", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
        ("dblink", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
        ("all_objects", InternalTraversal.dp_string_list),
    )
    def _get_indexes_rows(self, connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw):
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )

        query = self._index_query(owner)

        pks = {
            row_dict["constraint_name"]
            for row_dict in self._get_all_constraint_rows(
                connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
            )
            if row_dict["constraint_type"] == "P"
        }

        # all_ind_expressions.column_expression is LONG
        result = self._run_batches(
            connection,
            query,
            dblink,
            returns_long=True,
            mappings=True,
            all_objects=all_objects,
        )

        return [
            row_dict
            for row_dict in result
            if row_dict["index_name"] not in pks
        ]

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_indexes(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        scope,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        all_objects = self._get_all_objects(
            connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
        )

        uniqueness = {"NONUNIQUE": False, "UNIQUE": True}
        enabled = {"DISABLED": False, "ENABLED": True}
        is_bitmap = {"BITMAP", "FUNCTION-BASED BITMAP"}

        indexes = defaultdict(dict)

        for row_dict in self._get_indexes_rows(
            connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
        ):
            index_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["index_name"])
            table_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["table_name"])
            table_indexes = indexes[(schema, table_name)]

            if index_name not in table_indexes:
                table_indexes[index_name] = index_dict = {
                    "name": index_name,
                    "column_names": [],
                    "dialect_options": {},
                    "unique": uniqueness.get(row_dict["uniqueness"], False),
                }
                do = index_dict["dialect_options"]
                if row_dict["index_type"] in is_bitmap:
                    do["oracle_bitmap"] = True
                if enabled.get(row_dict["compression"], False):
                    do["oracle_compress"] = row_dict["prefix_length"]

            else:
                index_dict = table_indexes[index_name]

            expr = row_dict["column_expression"]
            if expr is not None:
                index_dict["column_names"].append(None)
                if "expressions" in index_dict:
                    index_dict["expressions"].append(expr)
                else:
                    index_dict["expressions"] = index_dict["column_names"][:-1]
                    index_dict["expressions"].append(expr)

                if row_dict["descend"].lower() != "asc":
                    assert row_dict["descend"].lower() == "desc"
                    cs = index_dict.setdefault("column_sorting", {})
                    cs[expr] = ("desc",)
            else:
                assert row_dict["descend"].lower() == "asc"
                cn = self.normalize_name(row_dict["column_name"])
                index_dict["column_names"].append(cn)
                if "expressions" in index_dict:
                    index_dict["expressions"].append(cn)

        default = ReflectionDefaults.indexes

        return (
            (key, list(indexes[key].values()) if key in indexes else default())
            for key in (
                (schema, self.normalize_name(obj_name))
                for obj_name in all_objects
            )
        )

    @reflection.cache
    def get_pk_constraint(self, connection, table_name, schema=None, **kw):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_pk_constraint(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @lru_cache()
    def _constraint_query(self, owner):
        local = dictionary.all_cons_columns.alias("local")
        remote = dictionary.all_cons_columns.alias("remote")
        return (
            select(
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.table_name,
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.constraint_type,
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.constraint_name,
                local.c.column_name.label("local_column"),
                remote.c.table_name.label("remote_table"),
                remote.c.column_name.label("remote_column"),
                remote.c.owner.label("remote_owner"),
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.search_condition,
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.delete_rule,
            )
            .select_from(dictionary.all_constraints)
            .join(
                local,
                and_(
                    local.c.owner == dictionary.all_constraints.c.owner,
                    dictionary.all_constraints.c.constraint_name
                    == local.c.constraint_name,
                ),
            )
            .outerjoin(
                remote,
                and_(
                    dictionary.all_constraints.c.r_owner == remote.c.owner,
                    dictionary.all_constraints.c.r_constraint_name
                    == remote.c.constraint_name,
                    or_(
                        remote.c.position.is_(sql.null()),
                        local.c.position == remote.c.position,
                    ),
                ),
            )
            .where(
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.owner == owner,
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.table_name.in_(
                    bindparam("all_objects")
                ),
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.constraint_type.in_(
                    ("R", "P", "U", "C")
                ),
            )
            .order_by(
                dictionary.all_constraints.c.constraint_name, local.c.position
            )
        )

    @reflection.flexi_cache(
        ("schema", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
        ("dblink", InternalTraversal.dp_string),
        ("all_objects", InternalTraversal.dp_string_list),
    )
    def _get_all_constraint_rows(
        self, connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
    ):
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )
        query = self._constraint_query(owner)

        # since the result is cached a list must be created
        values = list(
            self._run_batches(
                connection,
                query,
                dblink,
                returns_long=False,
                mappings=True,
                all_objects=all_objects,
            )
        )
        return values

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_pk_constraint(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        scope,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        all_objects = self._get_all_objects(
            connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
        )

        primary_keys = defaultdict(dict)
        default = ReflectionDefaults.pk_constraint

        for row_dict in self._get_all_constraint_rows(
            connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
        ):
            if row_dict["constraint_type"] != "P":
                continue
            table_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["table_name"])
            constraint_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["constraint_name"])
            column_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["local_column"])

            table_pk = primary_keys[(schema, table_name)]
            if not table_pk:
                table_pk["name"] = constraint_name
                table_pk["constrained_columns"] = [column_name]
            else:
                table_pk["constrained_columns"].append(column_name)

        return (
            (key, primary_keys[key] if key in primary_keys else default())
            for key in (
                (schema, self.normalize_name(obj_name))
                for obj_name in all_objects
            )
        )

    @reflection.cache
    def get_foreign_keys(
        self,
        connection,
        table_name,
        schema=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_foreign_keys(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_foreign_keys(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        scope,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        all_objects = self._get_all_objects(
            connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
        )

        resolve_synonyms = kw.get("oracle_resolve_synonyms", False)

        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )

        all_remote_owners = set()
        fkeys = defaultdict(dict)

        for row_dict in self._get_all_constraint_rows(
            connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
        ):
            if row_dict["constraint_type"] != "R":
                continue

            table_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["table_name"])
            constraint_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["constraint_name"])
            table_fkey = fkeys[(schema, table_name)]

            assert constraint_name is not None

            local_column = self.normalize_name(row_dict["local_column"])
            remote_table = self.normalize_name(row_dict["remote_table"])
            remote_column = self.normalize_name(row_dict["remote_column"])
            remote_owner_orig = row_dict["remote_owner"]
            remote_owner = self.normalize_name(remote_owner_orig)
            if remote_owner_orig is not None:
                all_remote_owners.add(remote_owner_orig)

            if remote_table is None:
                # ticket 363
                if dblink and not dblink.startswith("@"):
                    dblink = f"@{dblink}"
                util.warn(
                    "Got 'None' querying 'table_name' from "
                    f"all_cons_columns{dblink or ''} - does the user have "
                    "proper rights to the table?"
                )
                continue

            if constraint_name not in table_fkey:
                table_fkey[constraint_name] = fkey = {
                    "name": constraint_name,
                    "constrained_columns": [],
                    "referred_schema": None,
                    "referred_table": remote_table,
                    "referred_columns": [],
                    "options": {},
                }

                if resolve_synonyms:
                    # will be removed below
                    fkey["_ref_schema"] = remote_owner

                if schema is not None or remote_owner_orig != owner:
                    fkey["referred_schema"] = remote_owner

                delete_rule = row_dict["delete_rule"]
                if delete_rule != "NO ACTION":
                    fkey["options"]["ondelete"] = delete_rule

            else:
                fkey = table_fkey[constraint_name]

            fkey["constrained_columns"].append(local_column)
            fkey["referred_columns"].append(remote_column)

        if resolve_synonyms and all_remote_owners:
            query = select(
                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.owner,
                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.table_name,
                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.table_owner,
                dictionary.all_synonyms.c.synonym_name,
            ).where(dictionary.all_synonyms.c.owner.in_(all_remote_owners))

            result = self._execute_reflection(
                connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
            ).mappings()

            remote_owners_lut = {}
            for row in result:
                synonym_owner = self.normalize_name(row["owner"])
                table_name = self.normalize_name(row["table_name"])

                remote_owners_lut[(synonym_owner, table_name)] = (
                    row["table_owner"],
                    row["synonym_name"],
                )

            empty = (None, None)
            for table_fkeys in fkeys.values():
                for table_fkey in table_fkeys.values():
                    key = (
                        table_fkey.pop("_ref_schema"),
                        table_fkey["referred_table"],
                    )
                    remote_owner, syn_name = remote_owners_lut.get(key, empty)
                    if syn_name:
                        sn = self.normalize_name(syn_name)
                        table_fkey["referred_table"] = sn
                        if schema is not None or remote_owner != owner:
                            ro = self.normalize_name(remote_owner)
                            table_fkey["referred_schema"] = ro
                        else:
                            table_fkey["referred_schema"] = None
        default = ReflectionDefaults.foreign_keys

        return (
            (key, list(fkeys[key].values()) if key in fkeys else default())
            for key in (
                (schema, self.normalize_name(obj_name))
                for obj_name in all_objects
            )
        )

    @reflection.cache
    def get_unique_constraints(
        self, connection, table_name, schema=None, **kw
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_unique_constraints(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_unique_constraints(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        scope,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        kind,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        all_objects = self._get_all_objects(
            connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
        )

        unique_cons = defaultdict(dict)

        index_names = {
            row_dict["index_name"]
            for row_dict in self._get_indexes_rows(
                connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
            )
        }

        for row_dict in self._get_all_constraint_rows(
            connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
        ):
            if row_dict["constraint_type"] != "U":
                continue
            table_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["table_name"])
            constraint_name_orig = row_dict["constraint_name"]
            constraint_name = self.normalize_name(constraint_name_orig)
            column_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["local_column"])
            table_uc = unique_cons[(schema, table_name)]

            assert constraint_name is not None

            if constraint_name not in table_uc:
                table_uc[constraint_name] = uc = {
                    "name": constraint_name,
                    "column_names": [],
                    "duplicates_index": (
                        constraint_name
                        if constraint_name_orig in index_names
                        else None
                    ),
                }
            else:
                uc = table_uc[constraint_name]

            uc["column_names"].append(column_name)

        default = ReflectionDefaults.unique_constraints

        return (
            (
                key,
                (
                    list(unique_cons[key].values())
                    if key in unique_cons
                    else default()
                ),
            )
            for key in (
                (schema, self.normalize_name(obj_name))
                for obj_name in all_objects
            )
        )

    @reflection.cache
    def get_view_definition(
        self,
        connection,
        view_name,
        schema=None,
        dblink=None,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        if kw.get("oracle_resolve_synonyms", False):
            synonyms = self._get_synonyms(
                connection, schema, filter_names=[view_name], dblink=dblink
            )
            if synonyms:
                assert len(synonyms) == 1
                row_dict = synonyms[0]
                dblink = self.normalize_name(row_dict["db_link"])
                schema = row_dict["table_owner"]
                view_name = row_dict["table_name"]

        name = self.denormalize_name(view_name)
        owner = self.denormalize_schema_name(
            schema or self.default_schema_name
        )
        query = (
            select(dictionary.all_views.c.text)
            .where(
                dictionary.all_views.c.view_name == name,
                dictionary.all_views.c.owner == owner,
            )
            .union_all(
                select(dictionary.all_mviews.c.query).where(
                    dictionary.all_mviews.c.mview_name == name,
                    dictionary.all_mviews.c.owner == owner,
                )
            )
        )

        rp = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalar()
        if rp is None:
            raise exc.NoSuchTableError(
                f"{schema}.{view_name}" if schema else view_name
            )
        else:
            return rp

    @reflection.cache
    def get_check_constraints(
        self, connection, table_name, schema=None, include_all=False, **kw
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        data = self.get_multi_check_constraints(
            connection,
            schema=schema,
            filter_names=[table_name],
            scope=ObjectScope.ANY,
            include_all=include_all,
            kind=ObjectKind.ANY,
            **kw,
        )
        return self._value_or_raise(data, table_name, schema)

    @_handle_synonyms_decorator
    def get_multi_check_constraints(
        self,
        connection,
        *,
        schema,
        filter_names,
        dblink=None,
        scope,
        kind,
        include_all=False,
        **kw,
    ):
        """Supported kw arguments are: ``dblink`` to reflect via a db link;
        ``oracle_resolve_synonyms`` to resolve names to synonyms
        """
        all_objects = self._get_all_objects(
            connection, schema, scope, kind, filter_names, dblink, **kw
        )

        not_null = re.compile(r"..+?. IS NOT NULL$")

        check_constraints = defaultdict(list)

        for row_dict in self._get_all_constraint_rows(
            connection, schema, dblink, all_objects, **kw
        ):
            if row_dict["constraint_type"] != "C":
                continue
            table_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["table_name"])
            constraint_name = self.normalize_name(row_dict["constraint_name"])
            search_condition = row_dict["search_condition"]

            table_checks = check_constraints[(schema, table_name)]
            if constraint_name is not None and (
                include_all or not not_null.match(search_condition)
            ):
                table_checks.append(
                    {"name": constraint_name, "sqltext": search_condition}
                )

        default = ReflectionDefaults.check_constraints

        return (
            (
                key,
                (
                    check_constraints[key]
                    if key in check_constraints
                    else default()
                ),
            )
            for key in (
                (schema, self.normalize_name(obj_name))
                for obj_name in all_objects
            )
        )

    def _list_dblinks(self, connection, dblink=None):
        query = select(dictionary.all_db_links.c.db_link)
        links = self._execute_reflection(
            connection, query, dblink, returns_long=False
        ).scalars()
        return [self.normalize_name(link) for link in links]


class _OuterJoinColumn(sql.ClauseElement):
    __visit_name__ = "outer_join_column"

    def __init__(self, column):
        self.column = column
